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	Implicit in the qurʾānic understanding of God is an unqualified difference between divine and human. The very recognition of God is often expressed by the term tawḥīd, meaning both God’s oneness and human acknowledgment of it through the act of faith. It presupposes that there is no other being in any way similar to God (see polytheism and atheism), that God is utterly unique and that humans must not only ¶ testify to that uniqueness but embody their acknowledgment of it through their own lives and actions. As God alone is lord (q.v.) and creator of the universe (see creation), so the Muslim acknowledges that oneness by living a life of integrity and ethical and moral responsibility, in other words a life in which faith is reflected in all its dimensions (see ethics and the qurʾān). The greatest sin a human being can commit from the Islamic point of view is impugning the oneness of God (shirk, see sin, major and minor), i.e. to suggest by word or deed that anything else can in any way share in that divine unity.		Implicit in the qurʾānic understanding of God is an unqualified difference between divine and human. The very recognition of God is often expressed by the term tawḥīd, meaning both God’s oneness and human acknowledgment of it through the act of faith. It presupposes that there is no other being in any way similar to God (see polytheism and atheism), that God is utterly unique and that humans must not only ¶ testify to that uniqueness but embody their acknowledgment of it through their own lives and actions. As God alone is lord (q.v.) and creator of the universe (see creation), so the Muslim acknowledges that oneness by living a life of integrity and ethical and moral responsibility, in other words a life in which faith is reflected in all its dimensions (see ethics and the qurʾān). The greatest sin a human being can commit from the Islamic point of view is impugning the oneness of God (shirk, see sin, major and minor), i.e. to suggest by word or deed that anything else can in any way share in that divine unity.


	The Qurʾān leaves no doubt that faith as a general category of human response did not begin with Muḥammad or those who heard the first messages he preached. Throughout the ages there were people who understood that there is only one God, and who responded with faith and submission. In the Qurʾān they are usually described not as muʾminūn but as ḥanīf (q.v.; pl. ḥunafāʾ), monotheists who lived a kind of pristine purity in the knowledge and recognition of God. The first of these to be acknowledged by name, and thus understood as an archetypal person of faith or submission (islām), was Abraham (q.v.). «Abraham was not a Jew, nor a Christian, but he was an upright man (ḥanīfan), one who submits (musliman), and he was not of those who practice shirk (wa-mā kāna mina l- mushrikīna). The nearest of humankind to Abraham are those who follow him and this Prophet and those who have faith. God is the protector of the faithful» (q 3:67-8). The Qurʾān contains numerous references to Abraham and his offspring as those who were the original muslims, those who acknowledged and surrendered to God. The faith of the ḥanīf served as a precursor of the īmān which was to emerge as the essential characteristic of those who ¶ became part of the religion of Islam. It is the faith of Abraham that was signaled in the Qurʾān as that which gave justification to Judaism and Christianity as religions of the book (q.v.; see also people of the book), not the manifestations of those religions in forms which did not acknowledge that they were precursors of the coming of Muḥammad. «They say: Become Jews or Christians, then you will be rightly guided. Say: No, [rather] the religion of Abraham, the upright (ḥanīfan), and he was not one of those who practiced shirk (wa-mā kāna mina l- mushrikīna)» (q 2:135).		The Qurʾān leaves no doubt that faith as a general category of human response did not begin with Muḥammad or those who heard the first messages he preached. Throughout the ages there were people who understood that there is only one God, and who responded with faith and submission. In the Qurʾān they are usually described not as muʾminūn but as ḥanīf (q.v.; pl. ḥunafāʾ), monotheists who lived a kind of pristine purity in the knowledge and recognition of God. The first of these to be acknowledged by name, and thus understood as an archetypal person of faith or submission (islām), was Abraham (q.v.). «Abraham was not a Jew, nor a Christian, but he was an upright man (ḥanīfan), one who submits (musliman), and he was not of those who practice shirk (wa-mā kāna mina l- mushrikīna). The nearest of humankind to Abraham are those who follow him and this Prophet and those who have faith. God is the protector of the faithful» (q 3:67-8). The Qurʾān contains numerous references to Abraham and his offspring as those who were the original muslims, those who acknowledged and surrendered to God. The faith of the ḥanīf served as a precursor of the īmān which was to emerge as the essential characteristic of those who ¶ became part of the religion of Islam. It is the faith of Abraham that was signaled in the Qurʾān as that which gave justification to Judaism and Christianity as religions of the book (q.v.; see also people of the book), not the manifestations of those religions in forms which did not acknowledge that they were precursors of the coming of Muḥammad. «They say: Become Jews or Christians, then you will be rightly guided. Say: No, [rather] the religion of Abraham, the upright (ḥanīfan), and he was not one of those who practiced shirk (wa-mā kāna mina l- mushrikīna)» (q 2:135).
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	It is important to underscore the importance of fear (q.v.) as a component of faith. The word generally rendered as piety (q.v.), godliness or devoutness is taqwā, derived from the root letters w-q-y, which, in their fifth and eighth verbal forms, mean to fear, especially God: "O you who believe, " says q 59:18, «fear God.» Some have argued that to fear God (ittaqa llāh) is virtually synonymous with āmana, to have faith. Fear, however, is not a state in which the person of faith is terrorized or left in a pitiable condition bereft of consolation (q.v.). It is rather an attitude of trembling before the power and the majesty of God and the reality of the events to come at the end of time, including those signaling the coming of the "hour, " the resurrection, the judgment and the final consignment (see eschatology). Fear as an element of faith is balanced in the Qurʾān by the very trust implied in the original definition of īmān, often rendered as tawakkul, with the implication of a kind of unshakable reliance on the fundamental goodness, justice and mercy of God (see justice and injustice): «In God let those who are faithful put their trust» (q 14:11). Such trust is not always ¶ easy to achieve, however, and so the Qurʾān assures the faithful that they must also have patience, especially when up against difficult circumstances (see trust and patience). «O you who have faith! Seek help with steadfastness (ṣabr, lit. patience) and prayer (q.v.). God is with those who are steadfast (al- ṣābirīn)» (q 2:153). Faith which is grounded in absolute trust expresses the certainty of conviction, and it is therefore the highest form of knowledge (ʿilm). It is contrasted with other kinds of belief such as ẓann (supposition, opinion, assumption) and khars, which is close to guessing. The highest kind of faith is that generated by revelation. Many of the qualities which the Qurʾān affirms as an integral element of faith were part of the moral code that structured the lives of persons of conscience and honor (q.v.) in pre-Islamic Arabia (see pre-islamic arabia and the qurʾān).		It is important to underscore the importance of fear (q.v.) as a component of faith. The word generally rendered as piety (q.v.), godliness or devoutness is taqwā, derived from the root letters w-q-y, which, in their fifth and eighth verbal forms, mean to fear, especially God: "O you who believe, " says q 59:18, «fear God.» Some have argued that to fear God (ittaqa llāh) is virtually synonymous with āmana, to have faith. Fear, however, is not a state in which the person of faith is terrorized or left in a pitiable condition bereft of consolation (q.v.). It is rather an attitude of trembling before the power and the majesty of God and the reality of the events to come at the end of time, including those signaling the coming of the "hour, " the resurrection, the judgment and the final consignment (see eschatology). Fear as an element of faith is balanced in the Qurʾān by the very trust implied in the original definition of īmān, often rendered as tawakkul, with the implication of a kind of unshakable reliance on the fundamental goodness, justice and mercy of God (see justice and injustice): «In God let those who are faithful put their trust» (q 14:11). Such trust is not always ¶ easy to achieve, however, and so the Qurʾān assures the faithful that they must also have patience, especially when up against difficult circumstances (see trust and patience). «O you who have faith! Seek help with steadfastness (ṣabr, lit. patience) and prayer (q.v.). God is with those who are steadfast (al- ṣābirīn)» (q 2:153). Faith which is grounded in absolute trust expresses the certainty of conviction, and it is therefore the highest form of knowledge (ʿilm). It is contrasted with other kinds of belief such as ẓann (supposition, opinion, assumption) and khars, which is close to guessing. The highest kind of faith is that generated by revelation. Many of the qualities which the Qurʾān affirms as an integral element of faith were part of the moral code that structured the lives of persons of conscience and honor (q.v.) in pre-Islamic Arabia (see pre-islamic arabia and the qurʾān).


	The faithful are therefore described as those who are "protecting friends, one of another, " as specified in q 9:71. This verse continues by placing on male and female believers (muʾminūn and muʾmināt) the responsibility for carrying out what was to become one of the signal responsibilities for Muslims as developed in the schools of law and theology (see law and the qurʾān; theology and the qurʾān), namely to enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong. Thus doing good and avoiding evil (see good and evil), in the general qurʾānic understanding, is essential to an understanding and expression of faith. And the next verse again spells out clearly the reward for this discernment, namely the promise of God that the faithful men and women will abide in the blessed dwellings of the gardens of paradise (q.v.). In a number of references the Qurʾān affirms that those who have faith are regular and humble in their prayer, help and give asylum to the needy, pay the poor-tax (see ¶ almsgiving; poverty and the poor), guard their modesty (q.v.), love truth (q.v.) and honor their pledges (see contracts and alliances), are not weary or fainthearted, fight in the way of God (see jihād), and always trust in the guidance of God regardless of the circumstances. Qurʾān commentators agree that while a person is still alive in this world there is always the possibility of his or her coming to a position of faith. But when the final hour arrives, and time as we know it comes to an end, then the opportunity to attain faith is gone forever and one must pay the consequences. Some interpreters insist that to fare well in that final judgment one must not have abdicated his or her faith at any time, that faith must continue unabated from the time at which one acknowledges oneself to be a muʾmin to the last hour. Others allow that God in his mercy will accept the one who comes to the final judgment in a state of faith, regardless of earlier inconsistencies.		The faithful are therefore described as those who are "protecting friends, one of another, " as specified in q 9:71. This verse continues by placing on male and female believers (muʾminūn and muʾmināt) the responsibility for carrying out what was to become one of the signal responsibilities for Muslims as developed in the schools of law and theology (see law and the qurʾān; theology and the qurʾān), namely to enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong. Thus doing good and avoiding evil (see good and evil), in the general qurʾānic understanding, is essential to an understanding and expression of faith. And the next verse again spells out clearly the reward for this discernment, namely the promise of God that the faithful men and women will abide in the blessed dwellings of the gardens of paradise (q.v.). In a number of references the Qurʾān affirms that those who have faith are regular and humble in their prayer, help and give asylum to the needy, pay the poor-tax (see ¶ almsgiving; poverty and the poor), guard their modesty (q.v.), love truth (q.v.) and honor their pledges (see contracts and alliances), are not weary or fainthearted, fight in the way of God (see jihād), and always trust in the guidance of God regardless of the circumstances. Qurʾān commentators agree that while a person is still alive in this world there is always the possibility of his or her coming to a position of faith. But when the final hour arrives, and time as we know it comes to an end, then the opportunity to attain faith is gone forever and one must pay the consequences. Some interpreters insist that to fare well in that final judgment one must not have abdicated his or her faith at any time, that faith must continue unabated from the time at which one acknowledges oneself to be a muʾmin to the last hour. Others allow that God in his mercy will accept the one who comes to the final judgment in a state of faith, regardless of earlier inconsistencies.
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	The matter of faith and works for some was seen to be integrally related to the question of faith and submission. Islam is the only major religion whose very name suggests a bi-dimensional focus of faith. On the vertical axis it refers to the individual and personal human response to God’s oneness, often described as the «faith» dimension, while on the horizontal axis it means the collectivity of all of those persons who together acknowledge and respond to God to form a community of religious faith. Muslims agree that the religious response of all those persons throughout the ages who have affirmed the oneness of God in faith can rightly be understood as personal islām. It was only with the official beginning of the community at the time of the emigration (q.v.; hijra) to Medina (q.v.), however, that there came to be a specific recognition that Muslims together form a group, a unity, an umma, although the term islām itself was not often used to refer to that group until considerably later. Nonetheless it was over the ¶ question of legitimate membership in the umma that some of the most serious controversies arose. Implicit in that discussion was the issue of whether there is a distinction between islām and īmān (see islam).		The matter of faith and works for some was seen to be integrally related to the question of faith and submission. Islam is the only major religion whose very name suggests a bi-dimensional focus of faith. On the vertical axis it refers to the individual and personal human response to God’s oneness, often described as the «faith» dimension, while on the horizontal axis it means the collectivity of all of those persons who together acknowledge and respond to God to form a community of religious faith. Muslims agree that the religious response of all those persons throughout the ages who have affirmed the oneness of God in faith can rightly be understood as personal islām. It was only with the official beginning of the community at the time of the emigration (q.v.; hijra) to Medina (q.v.), however, that there came to be a specific recognition that Muslims together form a group, a unity, an umma, although the term islām itself was not often used to refer to that group until considerably later. Nonetheless it was over the ¶ question of legitimate membership in the umma that some of the most serious controversies arose. Implicit in that discussion was the issue of whether there is a distinction between islām and īmān (see islam).


	In the Qurʾān there is no clear distinction between these two terms. Among the early traditions of the community, however, is one in which the Prophet is said to have defined islām specifically as distinct from īmān. The narrative is given in a variety of renditions in a large number of compilations. The most popular version tells the story of a man who comes to the Prophet of God while he is seated with some of his companions. This man, who is unknown to the assembled group, turns out later to be the angel Gabriel (q.v.). He asks the Prophet, «What is islām?» And the Prophet replies that it is the specific duties of witnessing that there is no God but God and Muḥammad is his messenger (see witnessing and testifying), submitting to God with no association of anything else, performing the prayer (ṣalāt), paying the alms tax (zakāt), fasting (q.v.) during Ramaḍān (q.v.) and making the pilgrimage (q.v.; ḥajj) if possible. He then asks the Prophet, «What is īmān?» The answer given is that it is faith in God, his angels (see angel), his books, his messengers, the last day and the resurrection and all of the particulars to attend the final judgment, and (in some versions) the decree (al- qadr) in its totality (cf. Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, 48; Ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, i, 27, 51-2; ii, 107, 426; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, 36-40).		In the Qurʾān there is no clear distinction between these two terms. Among the early traditions of the community, however, is one in which the Prophet is said to have defined islām specifically as distinct from īmān. The narrative is given in a variety of renditions in a large number of compilations. The most popular version tells the story of a man who comes to the Prophet of God while he is seated with some of his companions. This man, who is unknown to the assembled group, turns out later to be the angel Gabriel (q.v.). He asks the Prophet, «What is islām?» And the Prophet replies that it is the specific duties of witnessing that there is no God but God and Muḥammad is his messenger (see witnessing and testifying), submitting to God with no association of anything else, performing the prayer (ṣalāt), paying the alms tax (zakāt), fasting (q.v.) during Ramaḍān (q.v.) and making the pilgrimage (q.v.; ḥajj) if possible. He then asks the Prophet, «What is īmān?» The answer given is that it is faith in God, his angels (see angel), his books, his messengers, the last day and the resurrection and all of the particulars to attend the final judgment, and (in some versions) the decree (al- qadr) in its totality (cf. Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, 48; Ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, i, 27, 51-2; ii, 107, 426; Muslim, Ṣaḥīḥ, i, 36-40).
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	Other factions in the early history of Islam looked at what the Qurʾān has to say about matters of faith and works from a different perspective. For one of these groups, the Muʿtazilites, faith was said to be measured most accurately by the works that constitute it. Known as the "people of justice and unity (ahl al-ʿadl wa-l-tawḥīd), " they insisted on the absolute unicity of God, denying him any substantive attributes, and held that God is necessarily just, and wills and does only that which is good (cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 787-91). In their view, humans are not predestined by God toward one condition or another, but make their own destiny by their deeds. For the Muʿtazilites, the primary issue was not whether the grave sinner is still a person of faith (indeed, they developed the notion of an «intermediate state» [al- manzila bayna l-manzilatayn], refusing to classify a sinful Muslim as either a believer [ muʾmin] or a disbeliever [ kāfir], but considering this individual a «malefactor» [ fāsiq]; cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 786-7), but that doing good works is an essential element of islām/ īmān. Unlike those who wanted to identify the crucial component of īmān as heartfelt affirmation, with deeds a secondary result, the Muʿtazilites insisted that faith cannot exist without works. The necessity of putting faith into action is seen in one of the principles of Muʿtazilism: heeding the qurʾānic injunction (cf. e.g. q 3:104, 110) of «ordering good and forbidding evil(al- amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-l-nahy ʿan al-munkar)»; how frequently Muʿtazilites put this principle into practice, however, is a matter of debate (cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 787; for a ¶ recent discussion of this principle in Islamic thought, see Cook, Commanding the right). The Muʿtazilites' stress on human reason as the way of understanding God’s commands led them to the position that faith is actually the knowledge by which the revelation is manifested. Īmān, then, is both what the faithful one knows and the necessary deeds undertaken on the basis of that knowledge.		Other factions in the early history of Islam looked at what the Qurʾān has to say about matters of faith and works from a different perspective. For one of these groups, the Muʿtazilites, faith was said to be measured most accurately by the works that constitute it. Known as the "people of justice and unity (ahl al-ʿadl wa-l-tawḥīd), " they insisted on the absolute unicity of God, denying him any substantive attributes, and held that God is necessarily just, and wills and does only that which is good (cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 787-91). In their view, humans are not predestined by God toward one condition or another, but make their own destiny by their deeds. For the Muʿtazilites, the primary issue was not whether the grave sinner is still a person of faith (indeed, they developed the notion of an «intermediate state» [al- manzila bayna l-manzilatayn], refusing to classify a sinful Muslim as either a believer [ muʾmin] or a disbeliever [ kāfir], but considering this individual a «malefactor» [ fāsiq]; cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 786-7), but that doing good works is an essential element of islām/ īmān. Unlike those who wanted to identify the crucial component of īmān as heartfelt affirmation, with deeds a secondary result, the Muʿtazilites insisted that faith cannot exist without works. The necessity of putting faith into action is seen in one of the principles of Muʿtazilism: heeding the qurʾānic injunction (cf. e.g. q 3:104, 110) of «ordering good and forbidding evil(al- amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-l-nahy ʿan al-munkar)»; how frequently Muʿtazilites put this principle into practice, however, is a matter of debate (cf. Gimaret, Muʿtazila, 787; for a ¶ recent discussion of this principle in Islamic thought, see Cook, Commanding the right). The Muʿtazilites' stress on human reason as the way of understanding God’s commands led them to the position that faith is actually the knowledge by which the revelation is manifested. Īmān, then, is both what the faithful one knows and the necessary deeds undertaken on the basis of that knowledge.


	The testimony of faith		The testimony of faith

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